It has long been claimed that Homo sapiens is the only species that has language, but only recently has it been recognized that humans also have an unusual pattern of growth and development. Social mammals have two stages of pre-adult development: infancy and juvenility. Humans have two additional prolonged and pronounced life history stages: childhood, an interval of four years extending between infancy and the juvenile period that follows, and adolescence, a stage of about eight years that stretches from juvenility (...) to adulthood. We begin by reviewing the primary biological and linguistic changes occurring in each of the four pre-adult ontogenetic stages in human life history. Then we attempt to trace the evolution of childhood and juvenility in our hominin ancestors. We propose that several different forms of selection applied in infancy and childhood; and that, in adolescence, elaborated vocal behaviors played a role in courtship and intrasexual competition, enhancing fitness and ultimately integrating performative and pragmatic skills with linguistic knowledge in a broad faculty of language. A theoretical consequence of our proposal is that fossil evidence of the uniquely human stages may be used, with other findings, to date the emergence of language. If important aspects of language cannot appear until sexual maturity, as we propose, then a second consequence is that the development of language requires the whole of modern human ontogeny. Our life history model thus offers new ways of investigating, and thinking about, the evolution, development, and ultimately the nature of human language. (shrink)

Although all natural languages are spoken, there is no accepted account of the evolution of a skill prerequisite to language—control of the movements of speech. If selection applied at sexual maturity, individuals achieving some command of articulate vocal behavior in previous stages would have enjoyed unusual advantages in adulthood. I offer a parental selection hypothesis, according to which hominin parents apportioned care, in part, on the basis of their infants’ vocal behavior. Specifically, it is suggested that persistent or noxious crying (...) reduced care to individuals who would have had difficulty learning complex behaviors, and that cooing and babbling increased social interaction and care as well as control over complex oralmotor activity of the sort required by spoken language. Several different tests of the hypothesis are suggested. (shrink)

Language, like other human traits, could only have evolved during one or more stages of development. We enlist the theoretical framework of human life history to account for certain aspects of linguistic evolution, with special reference to initial phases in the process. It is hypothesized that selection operated at several developmental stages, the earlier ones producing new behaviors that were reinforced by additional, and possibly more powerful, forms of selection during later stages, especially adolescence and early adulthood. Peer commentaries have (...) provided opportunities to explain human life history more comprehensively, and to add details to our account of spoken language. We made no attempt to explain syntax in the target article, but we propose here that selection for “vocal plumage” may have increased our species’ capacity for utterance complexity, a development that would have benefited all levels of language. (shrink)

Falk claims that human language took a step forward when infants lost their ability to cling and were placed on the ground, increasing their fears, which mothers assuaged prosodically. This claim, which is unsupported by anthropological and psychological evidence, would have done little for the syllabic and segmental structure of language, and ignores infants' own contribution to the process.

It has long been asserted that the evolutionary path to spoken language was paved by manual–gestural behaviors, a claim that has been revitalized in response to recent research on mirror neurons. Renewed interest in the relationship between manual and vocal behavior draws attention to its development. Here, the pointing and vocalization of 16.5-month-old infants are reported as a function of the context in which they occurred. When infants operated in a referential mode, the frequency of simultaneous vocalization and pointing exceeded (...) the frequency of vocalization-only and pointing-only responses by a wide margin. In a non-communicative context, combinatorial effects persisted, but in weaker form. Manual–vocal signals thus appear to express the operation of an integrated system, arguably adaptive in the young from evolutionary times to the present. It was speculated, based on reported evidence, that manual behavior increases the frequency and complexity of vocal behaviors in modern infants. There may be merit in the claim that manual behavior facilitated the evolution of language because it helped make available, early in development, behaviors that under selection pressures in later ontogenetic stages elaborated into speech. (shrink)

Parallels to Shanker & King's (S&K's) proposal for a model of language teaching that values dyadic interaction have long existed in language development, for the neotenous human infant requires care, which is inherently interactive. Interaction with talking caregivers facilitates language learning. The “new” paradigm thus has a decidedly familiar look. It would be surprising if some other paradigm worked better in animals that have no evolutionary linguistic history.

Many studies of primate vocalization have been undertaken to improve our understanding of the evolution of language. Perhaps, for this reason, investigators have focused on calls that were thought to carry symbolic information about the environment. Here I suggest that even if these calls were in fact symbolic, there were independent reasons to question this approach in the first place. I begin by asking what kind of communication system would satisfy a species’ biological needs. For example, where animals benefit from (...) living in large groups, I ask how members would need to communicate to keep their groups from fragmenting. In this context, I discuss the role of social grooming and “close calls,” including lip-smacking and grunting. Parallels exist in human societies, where information is exchanged about all kinds of things, often less about the nominal topic than the communicants themselves. This sort of indexical information is vital to group living, which presupposes the ability to tolerate, relate to, and interact constructively with other individuals. Making indexical communication the focus of comparative research encourages consideration of somatic and behavioral cues that facilitate relationships and social benefits, including cooperation and collaboration. There is ample room here for a different and potentially more fruitful approach to communication in humans and other primates, one that focuses on personal appraisals, based on cues originating with individuals, rather than signals excited by environmental events. (shrink)

Van de Vliert embraces a model of human needs, underplaying a model whereby individuals, motivated by psychological needs, develop coping strategies that help them meet their personal goals and collectively exert an influence on social and economic systems. Undesirable climates may inflate the value of financial capital, but they also boost the value of social capital.

To fully understand human language, an evolved trait that develops in the young without formal instruction, it must be possible to observe language that has not been influenced by instruction. But in modern societies, much of the language that is used, and most of the language that is measured, is confounded by literacy and academic training. This diverts empirical attention from natural habits of speech, causing theorists to miss critical features of linguistic practice. To dramatize this point, I examine data (...) from a special population––the canal boat children of early twentieth century England––whose language developed without academic influence, but was evaluated using instruments designed primarily for academic use. These data, taken together with related research, suggest that formal instruction can convert language from a purely biological trait that was selected, to a talent that was instructed, while altering the users of language themselves. I then review research indicating that formal instruction can also mask or distort inter-sexual differences in the social applications of language, a significant handicap to evolutionary theorizing. I conclude that if biological theories of language are to succeed, they must explain the spontaneous speaking practices of naturally behaving individuals. (shrink)

An important form of innovation involves use of the voice in a new way, usually to solve some environmental problem. Vocal innovation occurs in humans and other animals, including chimpanzees. The framework outlined in the target article, appropriately modified, may permit new perspectives on the use of others as tools, especially by infants, and the evolution of speech and language.

« Voici, cher lecteur, ce qui a fait le divertissement de quelques heures de loisir que je n’étais pas d’humeur d’employer à autre chose. Si cet ouvrage a le bonheur d’occuper de la même manière quelque petite partie d’un temps où vous serez bien aise de vous relâcher de vos affaires plus importantes, et que vous preniez seulement la moitié tant de plaisir à le lire que j’en ai eu à le composer, vous n’aurez pas, je crois, plus de regret (...) à votre argent que j’en ai eu à ma peine. »Nous reproduisons ici la traduction de Coste, celle-là même que Leibniz a sous les yeux en composant ses Nouveaux essais sur l’entendement humain. Elle a été faite en présence de Locke et avec son aide et acquiert ainsi la valeur d’un texte original. (shrink)

De la gymnastique à la géographie, du latin à la musique, le philosophe anglais aborde tous les aspects de l'éducation et montre que celle-ci relève de l'intérêt et du devoir de la société.

Le succes des Essais de John Locke sur l'origine, les modalites et le but de l'entendement humain fut similaire au triomphe de Newton en physique. Cet ouvrage initie tout le courant empiriste qui le suit, ainsi que la psychologie comme science. Il reste, a ce jour, la plus etudiee des oeuvres de Locke. Les livres I et II, ici edites dans une traduction nouvelle, presentent l'acte fondateur (que reproduiront Berkeley et Hume) de la these sensualiste: la critique (...) de l'inneisme et la source empirique de toute idee. Cette nouvelle traduction offre au lecteur un texte issu d'une lecture enrichie par trois siecles d'exegese. (shrink)

L'Essai sur l'entendement humain de Locke compte, desormais en France aussi, parmi les textes fondateurs de la modernite. Sans avoir eu l'influence d'un Descartes ou d'un Spinoza, Locke a synthetise de facon plus rigoureuse qu'on ne l'a longtemps cru l'esprit des Lumieres initiales. On retrouvera dans ce deuxieme tome de l'Essai (livres III et IV), ses positions sur le langage et le signe en general, sur la connaissance et sur les savoirs probables, sur la foi et l'enthousiasme, sur (...) le rapport corps-esprit - positions a nouveau discutees de nos jours. Cette deuxieme edition, revue et corrigee, tente de concilier lisibilite et exactitude; elle reprend pour la premiere fois en France les notes de la cinquieme edition, qui citent des elements importants des controverses suscitees par le livre (sur la substance, la matiere, la resurrection des corps); plusieurs index facilitent l'utilisation de l'ouvrage. (shrink)

Concu intialement par Locke comme un chapitre supplementaire de l 'Essai sur l'entendement humain et publie pour la premiere fois dans un volume d'oeuvres posthumes, ce texte aborde les themes majeurs qui ont occupe Locke, tels que la theorie de la methode, l'art de penser et la logique, et offre ainsi une vision de la pensee en developpement et en devenir du philosophe.

Dans les Deux traites du gouvernement, Locke poursuit des fins polemiques, politiques et philosophiques. Le Premier traite s'oppose a la theorie du droit divin des rois lie a la primogeniture, theorie dont Filmer s'etait fait le protagoniste. Les arguments du Deuxieme traite doivent leur validite a l'effort dont ils procedent: l'effort de progres de la raison politique en general. Locke y defend son appui a la cause de la religion constitutionnelle de religion reformee. Il affirme que le gouvernement (...) legitime ne peut se fonder ni sur la conquete, ni sur l'usurpation pas plus que sur la tyrannie. (shrink)

Le livre III de l’Essai de Locke passe pour un des textes importants que la fin du XVIIe siècle consacre exclusivement au langage. Mais il ne faut pas s’attendre à y trouver un traité de linguistique innovant dans un champ vierge; même si Locke découvre tardivement l’importance du nom dans le savoir, il lui est facile de trouver autour de lui suffisamment de travaux pour prendre position, critiquer, simplifier, réorienter. Réorienter car son étude du nom ne vise qu’à (...) préparer un traité de la connaissance, non à faire de la linguistique pour elle-même. Il simplifie de ce fait les travaux que le Scolastique nominaliste notamment avait multipliés. Il critique tous ceux qui dissocient le mot de la double “référence” qui lui est “naturelle” : l’idée et la chose; contre Hobbes mais aussi contre les théoriciens des langues universelles, il ancre les langues dans l’usage commun d’une part, dans le rapport incertain aux choses d’autre part, toujours par la médiation de la pensée individuelle. Il prend enfin position : le nom est l’instrument privilégié de l’abstraction et de la généralisation : indispensable pour la communication et l’accumulation du savoir, il est aussi le lieu de toutes les illusions. Par son approche des espèces naturelles, par sa critique de l’essentialisme qui restaure paradoxalement l’abstrait et l’universel, par sa réduction du langage à la communication d’informations, plus que par sa théorie linguistique, ce texte nous donne encore à penser. (shrink)

Le livre IV est un des livres importants au sein de l’Essai sur l’entendement humain. Il répond aux questions posées dans le livre I au sujet des limites précises de notre connaissance. On y retrouve l’examen de la validité de la croyance compris comme une modalité du savoir. Aussi le livre IV comporte-t-il deux parties : connaissance et probabilités. Dans la première, les analyses sur les propositions identiques et les propositions d’existence, ainsi que les preuves de l’existence de Dieu, sont (...) absolument incontournables. Quant à la seconde partie, Locke y est très novateur, évoquant la croyance en des termes dont les débats contemporains sont aujourd’hui très proches. (shrink)

John Locke, Marylène Delbourg-Delphis. (56) — SIC COGITAVIT DE INTELLECTU HUMANO JO LOCKE AN 1671. INTELLECTUS HUMANUS CUM COGNITIONIS CERTITUDINE, ET ASSENSUS FIRMITATE. § 1. 1° J'imagine que toute ...

English summary: In 1693, Locke wrote a number of works on the philosophy of Malebranche, contributing to the same controversy as Arnauld on the status of ideas, addressing specifically the questions of how to increase our limited knowledge. This critical edition presents Lockes practical critique with its opposition to the immediate vision of eternal truths, and to the assurance that comes of it. French description: Locke redige autour de 1693 plusieurs notes sur la philosophie de Malebranche. Ces critiques (...) n'ont pas eu le succes de celles d'Arnauld. Elles participent pourtant a la meme controverse sur le statut des idees. Mais l'idee n'est pas l'essentiel; Locke en traite dans le cadre d'un debat plus large: comment accroitre notre savoir limite? La critique a une visee pratique: s'opposer a la vision immediate des verites eternelles et a l'assurance qui en decoule. La tolerance et la liberte individuelle dependent de la modestie de chacun dans la recherche d'une connaissance limitee. La critique de Locke est loin de toujours respecter la pensee de Malebranche, mais elle manifeste les risques encourus quand on fait de Dieu un instrument de la connaissance plutot que son terme inaccessible. Cette nouvelle edition traduit les textes connus, ajoute des manuscrits inedits et les insere dans une presentation a deux voix, pour mieux deployer la coherence interne de chacun des protagonistes. (shrink)

Ce livre a pour seule ambition de faire comprendre quelque chose de la pensée de Ludwig Wittgenstein et de sa conception de tâche de la philosophie conçue comme une " thérapie " censée guérir certaines " maladies de l'esprit ". Le fait que Wittgenstein soit venu à la philosophie par le biais de réflexions sur la logique et les mathématiques est important à cet égard. Mais ce même Wittgenstein, ami de Bertrand Russell et de John Maynard Keynes, professeurs à (...) l'Université de Cambridge, ne fut pourtant jamais un universitaire typique. Qui plus est, sa pensée ne cadre point avec les théories et les problématiques caractéristiques de la philosophie contemporaine. Cela n'aurait d'ailleurs guère étonné Wittgenstein lui-même, qui se moquait des modes et des vogues intellectuelles, qui tenait notre siècle de progrès pour un âge de l'Unkultur et qui ne rédigeait ses pensées que " pour quelques amis dispersés aux quatre coins du monde ". (shrink)

The book also includes a chronological table of significant events, select bibliography, succinct explanatory notes, and an index--all of which supply ...

This is a new revised version of Dr. Laslett's standard edition of Two Treatises. First published in 1960, and based on an analysis of the whole body of Locke's publications, writings, and papers. The Introduction and text have been revised to incorporate references to recent scholarship since the second edition and the bibliography has been updated.

A Norton Library edition of Locke's Second Treatise of Government, edited by A. John Simmons.

This is a reproduction of the original artefact. Generally these books are created from careful scans of the original. This allows us to preserve the book accurately and present it in the way the author intended. Since the original versions are generally quite old, there may occasionally be certain imperfections within these reproductions. We're happy to make these classics available again for future generations to enjoy!